# Rome ## The Beginnings of Rome ### Rome's Founding Rome started off as a monarchy when it was founded by brothers, Romulus[^1], in 753 BCE.
:file-lines: Piece 1 — Rome’s Founding Mythology According to Roman mythology, the founders of Rome were Romulus and Remus. The twin-brothers were the sons of the god Mars and the priestess Rhea Silvia. The story begins with the deposition 1 of Numitor (their grandfather and king of the ancient Italian city of Alba Longa). Numitor's daughter, Rhea Silvia, became a priestess of the goddess Vesta 2 and was therefore forbidden to marry. However, the god Mars (his name was Ares in Greece) came to her in her temple, and they conceived two sons, Romulus and Remus. As soon as they were born, Romulus and Remus were placed in a basket and abandoned in the River Tiber because their mother was not supposed to have children. This practice was a form of infanticide 3 tolerated in many ancient cultures, including the Roman and Greek, when children were unwanted. The Tiber then flooded and when the waters fell, the basket containing the two boys came ashore. They were found by a she-wolf, who instead of killing them, looked after them and fed them with her milk. The she-wolf was helped by a woodpecker, who brought them food. Both of these animals were sacred to Mars (Ares). Romulus and Remus were then discovered by a shepherd, who brought the children to his home and raised the boys as his own. When they grew up, Romulus and Remus reinstated Numitor, their grandfather, as King of Alba Longa, and then decided to found a city of their own. Romulus and Remus chose the place where the she-wolf had nursed them. Romulus began to build city walls, but Remus mocked them because they were so low. He leaped over them to prove this, so Romulus killed him. Romulus continued building a new city, naming it Roma (Rome) after himself. Its first citizens were outlaws and fugitives. However, there were not enough wives for all the city’s men, so Romulus decided to steal women from the Sabines, another Italian tribe. As a trick, he announced a festival and invited many Sabines to it. While the Sabine men were distracted, Romulus and his friends carried off the women. The Sabine men were furious and, led by their king Titus Tatius, declared war on Romulus. When the fighting had reached its peak, the Sabine women, who had grown fond of their Roman husbands, begged both sides to make peace. So the battle was stopped, and Romulus and Titus Tatius ruled together over the two peoples until Titus Tatius was killed in battle. For the rest of his life Romulus ruled alone, proving himself a great leader in peace and war. Romulus disappeared one day in a violent storm. The Romans believed he had been taken up to heaven and worshipped him as a god.
From Passage 1, we can find out about the upbringing of the brothers Remus and Romulus. They were abandoned[^2] and raised by a she-wolf. This is significant, as wolves tend to be animals representing *courage*.
:file-lines: Piece 2 — Sabine Kidnapping Account Excerpt \[They], had the courage to throw themselves amid the flying weapons, imploring their fathers on the one side, their husbands on the other, "that as fathers-in-law and sons-in-law they would not contaminate each other with impious blood, If you are dissatisfied with the affinity between you, if with our marriages, turn your resentment against us; we are the cause of war. It were better that we perish than live widowed or fatherless without one or other of you. — Sabine Women, Livy - Ab Urbe Condita
The story about the kidnapping of Sabine women shows how the new women of Rome are strong enough to stress the belief of family. The Sabine women are said to rather die than be without one or the other, showing their close connection with both sides fighting. Romulus, as the first king, dies around 716 BCE. His six successors to the throne all contribute to the building of Rome. | Roman King | Ruling Period | | ----------------: | ------------- | | Romulus | 753-716 BCE | | Numa Pompilius | 715-673 BCE | | Tullus Hostilius | 673-641 BCE | | Ancus Marcius | 641-616 BCE | | Tarquin the Elder | 616-579 BCE | | Servius Tulius | 579-535 BCE | | Tarquin the Proud | 534-509 BCE | The monarchical stage of Rome ends due to an incident with the final Roman king's son. ### The Roman Political Shift The son of Tarquin the Proud is caught to have assaulted Lucretia, a Roman noblewoman who was renowned for her virtue[^3]. After her assault, she was found to have committed suicide. > “With Servius, true kingship came to an end; never again was a Roman king to rule in accordance with humanity and justice.” — Livy This incident shocked the Romans. Her body was taken to the Roman Forum and she becomes a symbol of *oppression*. Rome revolts against kings, swearing to *never* allow one person to grasp too much power again. After the banning of monarchy, Rome debates on the best form of government, eventually becoming a republic. ### The Roman Republic Rome shifts from a monarchy to a republic in 509 BCE. A republic[^4] is a *type* of democracy. Unlike in Athens—which was a direct democracy—the people would choose elected officials to govern instead.
:file-lines: Piece 3 — Polybius' Account of Rome's Republic The following excerpt is the description of the Roman constitution provided by the Greek historian Polybius in his book The Histories written between 167-119 BCE, a period of rapid Roman expansion. Polybius greatly admired the Romans, and the purpose of his work was to describe how Rome came to dominate the world. The Roman constitution has three elements. Each of them possesses independent powers, and their share of power has been so well regulated that no one can say for sure whether the constitution is an aristocracy[^5] or democracy or despotism[^6]. The Consuls (magistrates[^7]) lead the military and are the supreme masters of the government.\ They bring matters requiring debate before the Senate. They also call together the people's Assemblies, and carry out whatever the majority of the Assemblies decide. They have absolute authority in running the military and fighting wars and can spend as much public money as they choose. Seeing these powers would justify our describing the constitution as a despotism. The Senate proposes laws and has the control of the treasury. It also handles all crimes requiring an investigation. In addition, if it is necessary to send diplomats to a foreign country to make peace or to proclaim war, this too is the business of the Senate. As a result, many foreign kings imagine the constitution is a complete aristocracy because nearly all the business they had with Rome was settled by the Senate. After all this, someone would naturally ask what part is left for the people in the constitution.\ There is, however, a part left to the people (the Assemblies), and it is a most important one. It is the people in the Assemblies who grant office to those that deserve it through the elections. The Assemblies also have the final say in passing or repealing laws, and most important of all it is that they make the final decision on the question of peace or war. These considerations again would lead one to say that the chief power in the state was the People's, and that the constitution was a democracy. — Polybius
Immediately after Rome shifted to a republic, the social class altered. From highest to lowest in class was as follows.
Ranking/ClassDescription
PatriciansThe Patrician class was the ruling class. They were those who could trace their lineage back to the founding fathers of Rome. They consisted of wealthy landowners, consuls, and senators.
PlebeiansThe Plebeian class was all other citizens of Rome. They consisted of small farm owners, and had little to no rights or say in government.
FreemenThe freemen were slaves who were released by owners. They had approximately the same rights as the Plebeian class, yet were exalted lower. Most became craftsmen and traders.
SlavesPretty self-explanatory. Prisoners of war enslaved to do housework, mining, farming, etc.
## The Punic Wars From 264-146 BCE, Rome slowly began to amass more territory. This got the attention of another settlement called Carthage. Rome and Carthage conflicted due to their unanimous want of the island of Sicily. ### Carthage Carthage was a Phoenician settlement founded in 814 BCE. The Phoenicians[^8] were highly into trade, primarily trading purple dye. Purple dye was very difficult to obtain and expensive to get; it was considered a color of royalty. In Latin, the Phoenicians were translated as the Punics. {% hint style="info" icon="circle-info" %} The Carthaginians are the Phoenicians are the Punics. All of these are just synonymous titles given to the *same* settlement. {% endhint %} They had the strongest navy in the region at the time. > “No man could wash his hands in the salt water without the permission of Carthage.” The navy of Carthage was a double harbor, used dually for trade *and* military.

Image 1 — Diagram of Carthaginian Double Harbor

From Image 1, you can see that the narrow portion of the harbor was for commercial use. Merchants would line the boarders, leaving room in the center for military units; the latter were lined up in the inner portion of the harbor. This made docking very easy and fast. ### Roman Preparation Rome had a problem, however; they had no navy! Their solution was ingenuity[^9]. The Romans recovered a Carthaginian shipwreck and reverse engineered it to understand how they were built and what the use case was. They then used that information to build their own warships. The Romans had strength on foot, but were forced to fight at the sea. To combat this, they invented the Roman Corvus. It was essentially a mini bridge attached to the mast with a nail at the bottom of one end. This nail allowed the bridge to latch onto other boats when dropped. Roman soldiers could then march onto Carthaginian boats and attack there. ### The First Punic War The First Punic War, happening at Sicily from 264-241 BCE, hailed the Romans victorious. The Romans were now in control of Sicily. Hamilcar, the general of Carthage remained ashamed[^10]. The Second and Third Punic Wars happen from 218-146 BCE. ### Hannibal and The Second Punic War Hannibal, the son of Hamilcar, is enraged by the embarrassment Carthage has faced. > "I swear that so soon as age will permit...I will use fire and steel to arrest the destiny of Rome." — Hannibal the Conqueror \[as a young boy, \~9 yrs of age] From 218-201 BCE, Rome was attacked by the Carthaginian army, now led by Hannibal. Hannibal did this for several reasons. One, was to compel Rome to abandoning their planned assault on Carthage. Secondly, they wanted to cut off Roman trade alliances. Hannibal crosses [two entire mountain ranges](#user-content-fn-11)[^11] and gets to Rome by foot, instead of directly sailing to Rome. #### Roman Counteraction Scipio Africanus, the current Roman general, countered Hannibal by going directly to Rome. He then threaten Hannibal: either the latter is to protect his city, or continue the fight at Rome and watch Carthage burn down. #### The Battle of Zama In 202 BCE, Scipio fights Hannibal, where the Romans are—once again—victorious, resulting in over 20,000 casualties. Carthage was forced to surrender all territory out of Africa, [wage war only with Roman permission](#user-content-fn-12)[^12], and pay a massive indemnity[^13] to Rome over 50 years. ### The Third Punic War Cato, a prominent senator, wants to destroy what is left of Carthage. In fact, Cato said the same statement at *every* speech he gave. > ["Carthago delenda est!"](#user-content-fn-14)[^14] — Cato, Roman senator The wealth of Carthage—even after the foreboding terms the Romans had inflicted—disgusted him. In 150 BCE, Carthage was given pressure from the Numidians expanding into their territory. Since the Numidians were a Roman ally, they had no power to retaliate. When Carthage gives in to attacking the Numidians, Rome attacked Carthage for violation of the peace treaty made after the Battle of Zama. From 149-146 BCE, The Third Punic War commenced, where Carthage was destroyed. Afterwards, the Romans went to surrounding places where Carthaginians had fled. These escapees were then sold to slavery. > "A glorious moment, Polybius; but I have a dread foreboding that some day the same doom will be pronounced on my own country." — Scipio Aemilianus, Adoptive grandson of Scipio Africanus > > "A day will come when sacred Troy shall perish, And Priam and his people shall be slain." — Homer Scipio knew that one day, Rome would fall too, and that there was nothing anyone could do to stop it. ## The Struggle of The Orders The Punic Wars allowed for Rome to start its domination, starting the Middle Republic (264-133 BCE). In 494 BCE, the position of tribune was created, which gave the plebeians the ability to veto laws and established the Plebeian Assembly. The roman Republic became more representative as time passed, causing plebeian outrage. Afterwards, the Plebeians slowly gained more political power. In 342 BCE, Plebeians gained the ability to be a Consul. In 287 BCE, laws passed by the Plebeian Assembly was to apply to all Romans. The flow of wealth in the Mediterranean caused by the expansion of Rome, caused tons of goods to be exported back to Rome. Though this seems to be a good thing at first glance, the surplus of wealth and resources led to [more stretched social classes](#user-content-fn-15)[^15]. Whoever controlled the government also controlled the wealth; this enticed government positions further. ### Latifundia Latifundias[^16] were typically specialized in the production of goods like grain, olive oil, and wine. [Owners of these latifundias started to purchase smaller nearby farms.](#user-content-fn-17)[^17] Senators benefited the most from this activity. A crisis is then caused by the creation of latifundias: the, now, unemployed farmers move to cities in search of job opportunities. Those that were given housing there had to live in *suffering* conditions. > “Not only were \[city] buildings unheated...they contained airless rooms, indecently overcrowded: though poor in all the facilities that make for decent daily living, they were in addition so badly built and so high that they offered no means of safe exit from frequent fires that occurred. And if their tenants escaped typhoid, typhus, fire, they might easily meet their death in the collapse of the whole structure…The main population of the city that boasted its world conquest lived in cramped, noisy, airless, foul smelling, quarters and paid extortionate rents to merciless landlords.” — Mumford Income inequality grew and [violence became more common in politics](#user-content-fn-18)[^18]. To respond to this, the Gracchi brothers scheme on a possible solution. ### Tiberius Gracchus The older of the two, Tiberius Gracchus sought to fix the rising problems of the Struggle of The Orders. > “You fight and die to give luxury to other men...but you have not a foot of ground to call your own.” — Tiberius Gracchus He started by ***attempting*** to limit the size of rich estates, redistribute lands to the poor, and distribute grain to the poor. Because of his wills to help the general public, the Patrician class refuses to fund his land distribution plan. #### Tiberius's Assassination When Attalus III gave the Kingdom of Pergamum to Rome, Tiberius used this fund to implement his plan anyway. When he ran for re-election—something that was very frowned upon in Rome—a group of senators publicly clubbed Tiberius to death. His opponents thought he was trying to become a king because of his defiance against the Senate and his wish for re-election. ### Gaius Gracchus As Tiberius's younger brother and successor to power, Gaius Gracchus desired to follow his brother's steps. Gaius also believed the Roman government had to address problems of common people. He emphasized this symbolically by turning his back on the Senate and speaking directly to the people. After running for re-election, Gaius won, breaking prior Roman political norms. Gaius secured the passage of the following laws: * The lowering of the cost of food. * The right of citizens to appeal death sentences. * The resettlement of the poor in areas of Rome with available land. * The criminalization of bribery in Roman politics. After Gaius is also assassinated, the Senate passed an Extreme Powers Act, giving immense power to the Consuls. One of such, Lucius Opimius, arrests and executes over 3,000 Gracchans. ## Roman Republic Civil Wars By now, socials classed have stretched even further, starting The Late Republic (133-31 BCE). Army leaders came to rule Rome, forming separate armies that fought against each other for power. Plebeians who required a job and found them in these private armies. ### Julius Caesar Julius Caesar is born in 100 BCE to the Patrician class. He received Greek education, which is where he entered the career of politics. With his wish to be well-known, Caesar held many games allowing free entry to all. This caused him to gain popularity, though putting him in severe debt. To leave this debt, Caesar decided to co-rule with two other powerful men, creating the First Triumvirate. Pompey was a Roman general with a powerful army, Crassus was of the wealthy, and Caesar was the popular one. Caesar was given imperium[^19] in Gaul, where he ruled and conquered with his own private army. He, however, was not given imperium in Italy[^20]. > ["Veni vidi vici."](#user-content-fn-21)[^21] — Julius Caesar$$\text{}$$ The Senate is nervous about his success and popularity, eventually declaring him—along with Pompey—as an enemy of Rome. They demand that Caesar give up all of his holdings in Gaul and come back as a private citizen. He is ordered to arrive in Italy and to pass the Rubicon not with his army. > ["The die is cast."](#user-content-fn-22)[^22] — Julius Caesar Caesar goes back to Rome, yet he brings is army, disobeying Roman orders. If Caesar is to lose, he will be put as a traitor; if he wins, he receives ultimate power. ### Caesar's Rise to Power The First Triumvirate ends upon the death of the two others. Crassus dies to war in a campaign in Turkey. Crassus flees to Egypt, where he is mercilessly beheaded. Caesar is the only one to remain and no one challenges him; the Senate declares him as dictator for life. {% hint style="success" icon="lightbulb" %} Traditionally, those deceased prior are printed on coins. Julius Caesar was the first ***currently living*** man to appear on a Roman Republican coin. {% endhint %} Caesar does many actions to help the public.
ActionDescription
Public WorksCaesar helped create jobs for the poor & provided new buildings (Forum Julium, Curia Julia, and Basilica Julia) to enhance the look of the city
Expansion of SenateCaesar expanded Senate form 600 to 900 members & appointed his supports to the Senate. Some of these supporters were Plebeians!
Poor & VeteransCaesar distributed public lands to the poor & veterans. He will set up colonies throughout Roman World to ensure veterans had land.
CitizenshipCaesar granted Roman citizenship to many people in Rome’s provinces including Gauls, who fought alongside him. This allowed more people to participate in government.
FoodCaesar regulated grain purchases. He oversaw grain operations carefully so that poor Romans could get access to food. He forbade those who could afford privately supplied grain from purchasing from the state grain supply.
1-2 months after Caesar is elected as dictator for life is when he is assassinated by Roman senators. After Caesar's death, a power vacuum is left, where many will try to seize. Caesar's rise to power marks the end of the Roman Republic. ### Marc Antony's Funeral Speech When Marc Antony was given permission to give a speech at Caesar's funeral, he was specifically told not to celebrate him for his success. As a workaround, Antony realized to the public that Caesar's killers will receive backlash. He warned them of what was to come following Caesar's death. ### Caesar's Successors Marc Antony was one of Caesar's best generals, making him feel like he deserved to be the successor of Caesar. Gaius Octavian—the adoptive mentee of Caesar—felt that he deserved to be the heir. Caesar's son—whom everyone called Little Caesar—was the biological son of Caesar and Cleopatra of Egypt, making him also want the honor of Caesar's heir. Octavian and Antony make an agreement, where Antony will rule the eastern portion of Rome and Octavian will rule the western portion of Rome. Antony looks onto Cleopatra for financial and military help; Cleopatra uses this opportunity to manipulate Antony and gain power. Octavian steals Antony's will[^23] an publicly exposes him by reading it aloud. It contained the statement that Antony would like to leave his assets to his "beloved" Cleopatra; Octavian brought light to Cleopatra's actions and waged war, starting the Battle of Actium (31 BCE). Octavian is victorious against Cleopatra and Antony. Octavian changes his name to Augustus[^24], claiming the title of Princeps[^25] and Imperator[^26]. Octavian is Augustus Caesar. Augustus's rise to power marks the end of the Roman Republic and the civil wars. ## Slavery in Rome Slavery was [used in Rome](#user-content-fn-27)[^27] as early as 1000 BCE, but skyrocketed in popularity—and population of slaves—in the third or second century BCE due to the taking of Carthage. By the first century BCE, slaves accounted for 30-40% of Italy. ### Jobs of Slaves A slave's job varied, depending on their previous profession from before their land was captured. If you were a butler, you were enslaved as a butler; if you were a teacher, you were enslaved as a teacher; and so on. Those that didn't have a profession, were sent to work in agriculture. ### Treatment of Slaves Especially rich slaveholders tended to have multiple, taking them as property with a [welded metal collar](#user-content-fn-28)[^28] or tattoo. A slaves treatment was entirely up to the slaveholder; many slaves were respected with tombs and urns, but others were treated as if they weren't even human. Slaves were not subject to the same laws, and could be given worse punishments than even the lowest of citizens of Rome. > "There is a proverb: 'You have as many enemies as you have slaves.' But in truth we make them our enemies. We abuse them as if they were beasts of burden. When we recline for dinner, one wipes our spittle, another picks up the scraps and crumbs thrown down by drunkards. The point of my argument is this: 'treat your inferior as you would like to be treated.'" — Seneca ### Servile Wars Many slaves did as they were told, but others violently rebelled. Spartacus, an enslaved soldier escapee, became a leader in an uprising against The Roman Republic. This led to the Servile Wars in 73 BCE, where thousands of slaves rose up and demanded freedom. Eventually, Spartacus was killed in battle against an army led by [Crassus](#julius-caesar); the revolt fell apart. {% hint style="info" icon="circle-info" %} ### Aftermath Approximately 6,000 rebel slaves were crucified along the *Via Appia*. {% endhint %} ## Pax Romana For 207 years, Rome—after transitioning from a republic to an empire—began to experience immense provisions of peace, wealth, and expansion. {% hint style="info" icon="circle-info" %} Pax was the Roman goddess of peace. {% endhint %} During this time, there were more status of Augustus than any other Roman ruler to date, portraying Augustus as religious[^29], commanding[^30], political[^31], and godlike[^32]. ### Bread and Circus *Panem Et Circenses* meant "Bread and Circus" and represented the building and hosting of games at the colosseum. The colosseum was built in approximately 70 CE. The colosseum had free entry, even to the poor. If you *were* poor, you could go there for free food and entertainment. The ideal was that it was your leader that gave you this. At the colosseum, gladiator games were held. The colosseum was built by enslaved Jews. [^1]: Technically Romulus *and* his brother Remus founded Rome. But, Remus was murdered by his own brother and Romulus ended up as the first king. [^2]: Left in the elements to *die*, whether it be from starvation, thirst, or attack by an entity. [^3]: **Virtue** *n. \[ver-choo]* — Behavior showing high moral standards. [^4]: Republic means "*the public thing*." [^5]: **Aristocracy** *n. \[a-ris-to-kra-si]* — A form of government in which power is held by the nobility. [^6]: **Despositism** *n. \[des-po-zi-tizm]* — A form of government where a ruler holds absolute power. [^7]: **Magistrates** *n. \[ma-jish-tra-ts]* — Local officials who administer the law. [^8]: Phoenicians means "*purple people*." [^9]: **Ingenuity** *adj. \[in-ge-nu-i-tee]* — The quality of being clever, original, and inventive. [^10]: Not really. ;) [^11]: The Pyrenees Mountains and Alps. Additionally at the worst time: right before winter. [^12]: This means that Carthage could only fight other countries if and only if Rome allows it. This puts Carthage at an *extreme* disadvantage, especially against Roman allies. [^13]: **Indemnity** *n. \[in-dem-ni-tee]* — A sum of money paid as compensation, especially a sum exacted by a victor in war as one condition of peace. [^14]: Means "*Carthage must be destroyed!*" [^15]: Those higher up in class ended with all the wealth. [^16]: Means "*wide farms*." [^17]: Owners of latifundias had enough goods to lower their prices and still make enough to be wealthy. Since smaller farms are unable to compete, they go out of business and are sold to the latifundia owners. [^18]: Assassinations became increasingly more common; you don't like your political enemy, so you kill them. [^19]: **Imperium** *n. \[im-pee-ree-um]* — The right to control a military. [^20]: The central area of Rome; the place where Rome was first founded. [^21]: Means "*I came, I saw, I conquered.*"‎ ㅤ Duh. You should know that already. [^22]: This *most directly* is interpreted as "*the decision has been made*." [^23]: **Will** *n. \[will]* — A legal document specifying how you want your property, assets, and minor children's care handled after your death, appointing an executor to manage it and naming beneficiaries for your bequests, preventing state law intestacy rules from deciding your estate's fate. [^24]: Meaning "*venerable*." [^25]: Meaning "*first citizen*." [^26]: Meaning "*commander-in-chief*." [^27]: Specifically in the Italian Peninsula. [^28]: They would often have descriptions similar to that of modern-day *pets*: ㅤ "I have run away. Catch me. If you take me back to my master \_\_\_\_\_, you'll be rewarded." [^29]: Some statues inspire that Augustus is as religious as a priest. [^30]: Some statues inspire that Augustus is a strong general in military. [^31]: Some statues inspire that Augustus is a very educated politician. [^32]: Some statues inspire that Augustus is as powerful as a god. --- # Agent Instructions: Querying This Documentation If you need additional information that is not directly available in this page, you can query the documentation dynamically by asking a question. Perform an HTTP GET request on the current page URL with the `ask` query parameter: ``` GET https://rss-industries.gitbook.io/learn/ss/fundamental/global-history/global-1/rome.md?ask= ``` The question should be specific, self-contained, and written in natural language. The response will contain a direct answer to the question and relevant excerpts and sources from the documentation. Use this mechanism when the answer is not explicitly present in the current page, you need clarification or additional context, or you want to retrieve related documentation sections.